Intervention in the Greek War of Independence 107 against taking up arms, and called instead for the regeneration of the Greeks through education.21 Moreover, the urge for Greek freedom was not sweeping, with the Orthodox Patriarchate, most Phanariots and many primates in the southern Balkans against it, given their privileges and affluence.22 An initiative by two Greeks is going to make it easier to learn and remember historic milestone events of the 1821 Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. Although the origin of the Greek flag is still a matter of debate, the important fact to remember is that it was officially adopted by Greece on December 22, 1978. 5372. Apollo was telling them to be brave. With the exception of Tripolitsa, all sites had access to the sea and could be resupplied and reinforced by the Ottoman fleet. For the first time, a Christian subject people had achieved independence from Ottoman rule and established a fully independent state, recognized by Europe. The Greek War of Independence, overall, was a bloody and difficult conflict for the people of Greece. Peter the Great had envisaged a disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the re-institution of a new Byzantine Empire with an Orthodox emperor. Canning was influenced by the mounting popular agitation against the Ottomans, and believed that a settlement could no longer be postponed. Praised be your most virtuous name, omnipotent and most merciful Lord.". Meanwhile, Greek intellectuals and humanists, who had migrated west before or during the Ottoman invasions, such as Demetrios Chalkokondyles and Leonardos Philaras, began to call for the liberation of their homeland. Long under the rule of the Ottoman Empire (since 1453), Greece finally resisted Ottoman rule on a wide scale in 1821. The Ottoman Sultan called in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. However, the plans of the Filiki Eteria were discovered by the Ottoman authorities, forcing the revolution to start earlier. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. [89] The largest contingents came from the German states, France and the Italian states. The time has come, O Hellenes. A letter of Lord Byron seeking the release of a boatful of Greeks captured off Patras, dated March 2, 1824, a month and a half before his death. [145] British philhellene Edward Blaquiere issued a report in September 1823 which grossly exaggerated Greece's economic prosperity and claimed that once independent, Greece would easily become "one of the most opulent nations of Europe". David Brewer has captured this period of world history brilliantly, from the ground up-the heroes and villains, the victories, and the tragic defeats. The core territory of the War of Independence, out of which the Greek state emerged in 1830-1832, consisted of three main historical regions, each with its own distinctive cultural-geographical profile: the Peloponnese or Morea, the central Greek mainland including Attica and the island of Euboea, which was generally referred to as "Roumeli", Flag used by Greek guerillas (1821-1829) Greek guerilla flag - Image by Eugene Ipavec, 24 November 2009. [200] Since Britain and Russia were going ahead with their plans to impose mediation with or without France, if the French declined the offer to impose mediation, Greece would be in the Anglo-Russian sphere of influence, while if the French did take part, then Greece would also be in the French sphere of influence. [153], On 19 July 1824, the largest fleet seen in the Mediterranean since Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798 set sail from Alexandria, consisting of 54 warships and 400 transports carrying 14,000 French-trained infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 500 artillerymen, with some 150 cannons. war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries. A spirit of money-making has eaten up our patriotism. [144] Assisted by the London Greek Committee, which included several MPs and intellectuals, Louritis began to lobby the City for a loan. On 22 February [N.S. render back from out thy breast [117] The revolt, however, gained momentum in Mount Athos and Kassandra, and the island of Thasos joined it. They recognized the degeneration of the Ottoman Empire, but they did not know how to handle this situation (a problem known as the "Eastern Question"). [182] In December, Febvier was able to infiltrate a force of some 500 men into the Akropolis, bringing in much needed supplies of gunpowder, through he was much offended when Makriyannis had his men start firing to wake up the Turks, trapping Fabvier and his men. Beyond highlighting Russia's opening assault towards Kyiv, it shows the subsequent Ukrainian counter offensives to retake Northern Ukraine, Kharkiv Oblast in the Northeast, and the territory to the west of the Dnipro in Kherson. [172], In the spring of 1826, Ibrahim managed to capture the marshes around the city, although not without heavy losses. The . On July 21, 1832 the conflict reached its official end. [198], The Greeks formally applied for the mediation provided in the Petersburg Protocol, while the Turks and the Egyptians showed no willingness to stop fighting. However, the reactionary policies of the Holy Alliance were enforced by Francis II and the country refused to give asylum for leaders of revolts in neighboring countries. [184] In the meantime, the siege of Athens continued. The first revolt began on 21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. When a British frigate sent a boat to request the Egyptians to move their fire ships, the officer on board was shot by the Egyptians. ", Adanir, "Semi-autonomous Forces", pp. In Europe, the Greek revolt aroused widespread sympathy among the public, although at first it was met with lukewarm and negative reception from the Great Powers. While the combat itself takes place in the Balkans and in the waters of the Ionian and Aegean seas, from Alexander Ypsilantis crossing of the Pruth in February 1821 to the decisive naval Battle of Navarino in October 1827, the struggle for Greek independence begins in 1453 with the fall of Byzantine Constantinople, spans centuries of subjection and assimilation to Ottoman rule, and culminates in the late 18th century with a cultural Greek enlightenment that draws the attention and support of most of Europe. 5 October],[75] and the city was given over to the mob for two days. In spite of these difficulties, the independence of Greece was recognized by all in 1830, and although it labored under the long reign of King Otto, the Great Powers chosen regent, in 1864, under a far more democratic monarch and constitution, Greece began to better realize the independence its patriots had sacrificed so much to gain. Must we but weep o'er days more blest? See the sources listed and the discussion of the revolution in Gallant, Thomas W. (2015). [24], Nevertheless, klephts and armatoloi formed a provincial elite, though not a social class, whose members would muster under a common goal. After that, the Ottoman Empire ruled the Balkans and Anatolia (Asia Minor), with some exceptions. tsumi mo uso mo datsuhou mo chuu ni matte ita. The insurgents were besieged in Gramvousa for more than two years and they had to resort to piracy to survive. Under the protocol signed on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting powers, Greece was defined as a "monarchical and independent state" but was to pay an indemnity to the Porte. Even though the Greeks were ultimately victorious, it was not without its consequences. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. By its nature, war is harsh, brutal, and pitiless, and while it can call out . Document 2 quotes Aristotle, another philosopher. Though sometimes referred to as the first armed conflict that established the independence of a modern nation state, the struggle was fraught with so many conflicting political interests and so many incidents of both atrocity and heroism that no simple definition or explanation is possible. [195], When Tsar Nicholas I succeeded Alexander in December 1825, Canning decided to act immediately: he sent the Duke of Wellington to Russia, and the outcome was the Protocol of St Petersburg of 4 April 1826. He was 94 years old. Metternich also tried to undermine the Russian foreign minister, Ioannis Kapodistrias, who was of Greek origin. Because of the Greek origin of so much of the West's classical heritage, there was tremendous sympathy for the Greek cause throughout Europe. However, when his force landed at Pyrgos Dirou, they were confronted by a group of Maniot women and repelled. Greek War of Independence [ edit] "The camp of Georgios Karaiskakis at Kastella " by Theodoros Vryzakis (1855). [37] The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the Battle of Gravia under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos, who, with a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. [51] In Britain there was strong support led by the Philosophical Radicals, the Whigs, and the Evangelicals. [d] From the early 18th century and onwards, members of prominent Greek families in Constantinople, known as Phanariotes (after the Phanar district of the city), gained considerable control over Ottoman foreign policy and eventually over the bureaucracy as a whole. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The British public, many of them Philhellenes, were overjoyed at the outcome of the battle which all but confirmed the independence of Greece. Our laws, our literature, our religion [sic], our art have their roots in Greece. [223], Some of the more infamous atrocities include the Chios Massacre, the Constantinople Massacre, the Destruction of Psara, Massacre of Samothrace (1821), Kasos Massacre, Naousa massacre, Third siege of Missolonghi, the massacres following the Tripolitsa Massacre, and the Navarino Massacre. [3] In 1826, the Greeks became assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals, particularly the eyalet of Egypt. Simultaneously, Ibrahim sent his fleet further down the Maniot coast in order to outflank the Greek defenders and attack them from the rear. In fact, during the Ottoman occupation and the first few years of the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829), many flags were used by different people . pp. Nevertheless, Alexander's position was ambivalent, since he regarded himself as the protector of the Orthodox Church, and his subjects were deeply moved by the hanging of the Patriarch. "Today the fatherland is reborn, that for so long was lost and extinguished. ", which he called "damning proof of the selfish indifference of the Christian world. [47], The Filiki Eteria expanded rapidly and was soon able to recruit members in all areas of the Greek world and among all elements of the Greek society. It also shows the results of Russia . On 18 May, when Yusuf learned of the incidents at Polygyros and the spreading of the insurrection to the villages of Chalkidiki, he ordered half of his hostages to be slaughtered before his eyes. Within a year the rebels had gained control of the Peloponnese, and in January 1822 they declared the independence of Greece. Byron's death strengthened European sympathy for the Greek cause. 6466. General Chatzipetros, showing military decorations declared "These were given to me by the heroism and braveness of the Column of Cypriots". Mavrokordatos saved the office of president of the executive for himself, while Ypsilantis, who had called for the Assembly, was elected president of the legislative body, a place of limited significance. [132] The Greek military leaders preferred battlefields where they could annihilate the numerical superiority of the opponent, and, at the same time, the lack of artillery hampered Ottoman military efforts. 125142. [78] The Ottoman commander in the Roumeli was the Albanian general Omer Vrioni who become infamous for his "Greek hunts" in Attica, which was described thus: "One of his favourite amusements was a 'Greek hunt' as the Turks called it. The rebellion originated in the activities of the Philik Etairea ("Friendly Brotherhood"), a patriotic conspiracy founded in Odessa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Classical . Of the 89 Egyptian-Turkish ships that took part in the battle, only 14 made it back to Alexandria and their dead amounted to over 8,000. Muhammad Ali finally agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece in exchange not only for Crete and Cyprus, but for the Peloponnese and Syria as well. This influence was reinforced by the issuing of two loans that the Greeks managed to conclude with British fund-holders in 1824 and 1825. By that time the desire for some form of independence was common among Greeks of all classes, whose Hellenism, or sense of Greek nationality, had long been fostered by the Greek Orthodox Church, by the survival of the Greek language, and by the administrative arrangements of the Ottoman Empire. 159160, Trudgill, "Greece and European Turkey", p. 241. 2021 marks the 200th anniversary of the Greek War of Independence and so provides a commemorative opportunity to again assess its nature and significance. I know they [the Ottoman] are waiting for an opportunity to kill me". [88], In Nafplio, a monument to honor the philhellenes who died fighting in the war listed 274 names, of which 100 are from Germany, forty each from France and Italy, and the rest from Britain, Spain, Hungary, Sweden, Portugal and Denmark. The final major engagement of the war was the Battle of Petra, which occurred north of Attica. The newly established Greek state would pursue further expansion and, over the course of a century, parts of Macedonia, Crete, parts of Epirus, many Aegean Islands, the Ionian Islands and other Greek-speaking territories would unite with the new Greek state. In 1823 civil war broke out between the guerrilla leader Thedoros Kolokotrnis and Gergios Kountouritis, who was head of the government that had been formed in January 1822 but that was forced to flee to the island of Hydra (dra) in December 1822. [93] In New York City, one ball put on by the Greek committee raised $8,000[93] (~$180,000 in 2021). Russia formally took the opportunity to declare war on the Turks (April 1828).[206]. [16] During the Second Russo-Turkish War, the Greek community of Trieste financed a small fleet under Lambros Katsonis, which was a nuisance for the Ottoman navy; during the war klephts and armatoloi (guerilla fighters in mountainous areas) rose once again. [210] The Sublime Porte, which had rejected the call for an armistice in 1827, now rejected the conclusions of the Poros conference, with the Sultan Mahmud II saying he would never grant Greece independence, and the war would go on until he reconquered all of Greece. Right: Account of the contributions of several Swiss communities in support of Greek independence, 1829. [182] By the middle of August, only the Acropolis still held out under Yannis Gouras. The Cypriot battalion brought with them their own distinctive war banner, consisting of a white flag with a large blue cross, and the words GREEK FLAG OF THE MOTHERLAND CYPRUS emblazoned in the top left corner. [129] Against them stood the Ottoman fleet, which enjoyed several advantages: its ships and supporting craft were built for war; it was supported by the resources of the vast Ottoman Empire; command was centralized and disciplined under the Kapudan Pasha. Unpublished commercial correspondence of the French consul in Patras, Hugues Pouqueville (18201822)", Vakalopoulos, "The Great Greek Revolution", pp. Kolokotronis refused, and the Assembly was finally gathered in March 1823 in Astros. Following news that the combined OttomanEgyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied European fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy at Navarino. [168] The British traveller and Church of England minister, Reverend Charles Swan, reported Ibrahim Pasha as saying to him that he "would burn and destroy the whole Morea". [152], During this period, the two first installments of the English loan had arrived, and the position of the government was strengthened; but the infighting was not yet over. "Today the fatherland is reborn, that for so long was lost and extinguished. During the summer the Souliot Markos Botsaris was shot dead at the Battle of Karpenisi in his attempt to stop the advance of Ottoman Albanian forces;[147] the announcement of his death in Europe generated a wave of sympathy for the Greek cause. When ancient Greeks had a thought, it occurred to them as a god or goddess giving an order. In Bucharest, the relations of the two men deteriorated dramatically; Vladimirescu's first priority was to assert his authority against the newly appointed prince Scarlat Callimachi, trying to maintain relations with both Russia and the Ottomans. [114] On 8 May, the Turks, infuriated by the landing of sailors from Psara at Tsayezi, by the capture of Turkish merchants and the seizure of their goods, rampaged through the streets of Serres, searched the houses of the notables for arms, imprisoned the Metropolitan and 150 merchants, and seized their goods as a reprisal for the plundering by the Psarians.[115]. On 22 June 1823, Emmanouil Tombazis, appointed Commissioner of Crete by the Greek revolutionary government, held the Convention of Arcoudaina in an attempt to reconcile the factions of local captains and unite them against the common threat. The Greek War of Independence of 1821 is the stuff of legend, as the outnumbered, poorly armed Greeks fought against an entire empire with a regular army that had conquered a big part of Europe and Asia Minor. [136], The Chios massacre shocked all of Europe and further increased public sympathy for the Greek cause. Greeks controlled the affairs of the Orthodox Church through the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, as the higher clergy of the Orthodox Church was mostly of Greek origin. [174] However, a Bulgarian deserter informed Ibrahim of the Greeks' intention, and he had his entire army deployed; only 1,800 Greeks managed to cut their way through the Egyptian lines. [132] Short of men and money, the Ottoman state turned to hiring Albanian tribesmen to fight the Greeks, and by 1823, the bulk of the Ottoman forces in Greece were Albanian mercenaries hired for a campaigning season rather than the Ottoman Army.